Conjunctions, Particles, and Joining Sentences

The Coordinating Conjunctions

104.A coordinating conjunction joins two things of like rank — two words, or two clauses that could each stand alone. Ir (and) was given at ¶27; beside it stand bet (but) and arba (or). None of them governs a case: what they join keeps whatever case its own clause requires, and the second clause repeats the case rather than borrowing it.

Aš dirbu, bet brolis studijuoja.

I work, but my brother studies.

Man patinka ir kava, ir arbata.

I like both coffee and tea.

Vakare skaitau arba žiūriu televizorių.

In the evening I read or watch television.

O: the Conjunction of Contrast

105.O has no single English word. It joins two statements that are set side by side and differ — I live in Vilnius, whereas I work in Kaunas — where bet would deny or correct what came before. English uses and for the one and but for the other, and so gives the learner no help at all; the test is whether the second clause contradicts the first (bet) or merely contrasts with it (o).

Šiandien dirbu, o rytoj ilsiuosi.

Today I work, and tomorrow I rest.

Norėjau eiti, bet nebuvo laiko.

I wanted to go, but there was no time.

• [1] O also opens a sentence to change the subject in conversation: O kaip tu? — And you? What about you?

Arba and Ar: the Two Kinds of Or

106.Arba offers a choice in a statement. Ar, which ¶48 gave as the particle opening a yes-or-no question, is also the or that offers a choice within a question. The rule is simple: in a question use ar, in a statement use arba.

Kavos su cukrumi ar be cukraus?

Coffee with sugar or without? — a question: *ar*

Geriu kavą arba arbatą.

I drink coffee or tea. — a statement: *arba*

Ar tu eini, ar lieki?

Are you going or staying?

Cause and Consequence: Nes and Todėl

107.Nes gives the reason and answers kodėl? (¶50); it always stands at the head of its own clause and never begins the sentence. Todėl gives the consequence — therefore, so — and stands at the head of the clause that follows from the reason. The two are mirror images, and a sentence uses one or the other, not both.

Kodėl nedirbi? – Nes šiandien sekmadienis.

Why aren't you working? — Because today is Sunday.

Buvo šalta, todėl likome namie.

It was cold, so we stayed at home.

Condition: Jei and Jeigu

108.Jei, or in its longer and commoner form jeigu, introduces a condition. The two are the same word and interchangeable. Where the condition concerns the future, Lithuanian puts both clauses in the future — it says what it means, where English keeps a present after if (¶103).

Jeigu turėsi laiko, eisime į teatrą.

If you have time, we shall go to the theatre. — *turėsi* is future, though English says *have*

Jei nori, galiu padėti.

If you want, I can help. — present in both, because the condition is present

Neisiu, jeigu bus šalta.

I shall not go if it is cold.

• [1] The conditional clause may stand first or second; wherever it stands, it is marked off by a comma.

Subordination with Kad

109.Kad — that — turns a whole sentence into the object of a verb of saying, thinking or knowing. Two things distinguish it from English. First, kad may never be omitted, where English drops that freely. Second, the clause is always set off by a comma, and Lithuanian punctuates by grammar rather than by pause: wherever a subordinate clause begins, a comma stands before it.

Ji sako, kad rytoj nedirbs.

She says that tomorrow she will not work.

Žinau, kad tu esi iš Lietuvos.

I know that you are from Lithuania.

Indirect Questions

110.A question reported inside another sentence keeps its own question word, and the word order does not change — because Lithuanian never inverted it to make the question in the first place (¶48). A yes-or-no question is reported with ar, which is whether; a question with kas, kur, kada keeps that word. The comma of ¶109 stands as before.

Nežinau, ar rytoj ateisiu.

I do not know whether I shall come tomorrow.

Klausiu, kur tu gyveni.

I am asking where you live.

Ji nežino, kada bus susitikimas.

She does not know when the meeting will be.

• [1] English says I don't know if as readily as whether; Lithuanian has one word, ar, for both.

The Particles

111.A particle colours a sentence without belonging to its grammar: it takes no case, governs nothing, and could be struck out without leaving the sentence ungrammatical. Four are needed constantly. Gal is perhaps, and softens a request into politeness. Dar is still or, with a negative, not yet. Jau is already. Taip and ne are the words for yes and no.

Gal eisiu namo.

Perhaps I shall go home. — *gal* in a statement is uncertainty, not politeness

Jis dar negrįžo.

He has not come back yet.

Ar jau valgei? – Taip, jau.

Have you eaten already? — Yes, already.